Shakespeares Women The Weaker Vessel or Stronger Sex

Sample details Pages: 25 Words: 7439 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? The subject of gender relationships within the work of Shakespeare became a matter of lively debate during the last quarter of the twentieth century and continues to be an area that attracts much scholarship and controversy. Perceptions that early modern society was antithetical to any exercise of power by women must be counterbalanced by the knowledge that, until 1603, a woman, Queen Elizabeth, held the ultimate power in England. Recent research has increasingly revealed that across this society a significant number of women held economic and social power and so the idea that Shakespeare reflects a society in which women area powerless and oppressed group is one which must be treated with somecaution. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Shakespeares Women: The Weaker Vessel or Stronger Sex? | English Literature Dissertation" essay for you Create order Shakespeares work presents a wide variety of female characters and the ways in which they have been perceived has altered over the four hundred years since the plays and poems were written. Play scripts areparticularly susceptible to re-interpretation and in many ways such interpretations reflect as much about their own historical period asabout the one in which the plays were originally written. Each age finds its own relationship with Shakespeare and so it could be arguedthat the question of whether Shakespeares women are regarded as strongor weak is inevitably influenced as much by the gender issues of the present time as by the time in which they were originally created. It is important not to assume that we can read Shakespeares women characters as examples of how women were treated in the period in which the work was written (Barker Kamps, 1995, 5), but rather to use the information that we have about the early modern period in order to see the characterisation of fictional ch aracters as they relate to the constraints which operated on real women of the period.It is also necessary to be aware that, with any dramatic texts, the interventions of actors, directors and current audience expectationscan radically alter the ways in which fictional characters are judged. It is the intention of this dissertation to give a brief introduction to the conventional views of women during the early modern period. Some scholars, such as Lisa Jardine (1989), Jean E. Howard (1988) and Juliet Dusinberre (1996), have argued that the way in which Shakespeare created women characters was in part determined by the fact that they were represented by boy players on the stage. However, it is hoped that by including a discussion of the narrative poem, The Rape of Lucrece, which was not intended for stage production, this dissertation will emphasise a continuity among Shakespeares female characters that goes beyond the necessities of the stage. The discussion will also focus on three of Shakespeares great tragedies, written during at the peak of his career, when his work had become popular amongst a large audience. The popularity of Hamlet, King Lear and Macbeth has enduredover four centuries and these plays continue to reach wide audiencesand have a significant influenc e on current views of Shakespeares women. In early modern England, notions about female gender roles tended to be constructed by two forms of discourse: the theological and themedical. Theological sermons and pamphlets emphasised the biblicalinjunctions that women should be silent and obedient and that they were subject to the authority of their husbands. Callaghan (1989, 9) arguesthat Renaissance society was profoundly hierarchical and that the chain of authority extended from God, via the monarch, to men and women who were expected to conduct their household relationships inconformity with the idea that women were subject the authority of their fathers and husbands. Belsey (1985, 9) emphasises that men and women are not symmetrically defined. Man, the centre and hero of liberal humanism, was produced in contradistinction to the objects of his knowledge, and in terms of the relations of power in the economy and the state. Woman was produced in contradistinction to man,and in terms of the relations of power in the family. These relationships were worked out in the public and private spheres in the requirement that, in terms of the economy and the state,women should be voiceless, and within the family they should be subjec tto their husbands, fathers and other male relatives. Thus, Newman (1991, 134) argues: Talk in women then is dangerous because it is perceived as ausurpation of multiple forms of authority, a threat to order and malesovereignty, to masculine control of commodity exchange, to a desiredhegemonic male sexuality. The extent of this perceived threat may begauged by the strict delegation of the talking woman to the carefullydefined and delimited spheres of private and domestic life in which thehusband was exhorted to rule. In early modern medical texts, the classical theories of Galen andAristotle, in which the female was regarded as in imperfect version ofthe male, predominated. Aughterson, (1995, 42) argues that the Galenictheories of the humours effectively continued to assign woman aninferior physiological state to that of man. Howard (2003, 419)observes that men and women were not assumed to be innately different,but rather were viewed as more perfect and less perfect versions of thesame prototype. From these constructions of physiological theory camethe idea that male and female were so intimately related that they werepotentially capable of transmutation: Stories exist from the early modern period recording cases in which,when women supposedly became overheated in running or jumping, malegenitalia would erupt from inside their bodies. (Howard, 2003, 419). That Shakespeare was aware of these ideas and utilised them in hischaracterisations of men and women is demonstrated when Hamlet isconcerned about his feminisation (Rose, 1995, 116), and when LadyMacbeth refutes her femininity: Come, you Spirits / That tend onmortal thoughts, unsex me here (Macbeth I.v.40-41). The term weaker vessel originates from the Bible and can beeffectively seen to straddle both theological and the physiologicaltheories about the relationships between women and men, as isillustrated from the following extract from a homily, dated 1562,designed to be the required reading at marriage ceremonies: St Peter giveth his precept saying: you husbands deal with yourwives according to knowledge, giving honour to the wife as unto theweaker vessel, and as unto them that are heirs also of the grace oflife, that your prayers be not hindered [1 Peter 3). For the womanis a weak creature, not endued with like strength and constancy ofmind, therefore they be the sooner disquieted, and they be the moreprone to all weak affections and dispositions of the mind, more thanmen be, and lighter they be, and more vain in their fancies andopinions. (An Homily of the State of Matrimony, 1562, from Aughterson, 1995, 23.) This essentially conservative and restrictive view of women was held,in spite of, or perhaps because of the upheaval and unrest of Englandat that time. Early modern England was a society in transition and thedisquiet that came with modernisation often led to reactive measuresdesigned to uphold the status quo. The sumptuary laws, in which modesof dress were prescribed in order to maintain class differences, can beread as an attempt to rein back an increasing level of socialmobility. Similarly, the discourse of gender difference has beeninterpreted as an essentially conservative reaction to social change: Time and again in these plays, we see crucial social problemspresented in relation to a central conflict involving genderopposition. Furthermore, since that opposition entails a fundamentalhierarchy (male superiority and female subordination), its function, interms of the dominant ideology is to reinforce the status quo. Yetthis function is problematic. Female inferiority was not an undebatedcultural given. It was fiercely contestedCallaghan (1989, p.11): Recent research supports this argument. The discourse of malesuperiority and female subordination must be seen in a historicalcontext in which a significant number of women had influence in thewider society. There were many wealthy women who wielded greateconomic power; some women participated in the workplace through guildmembership; a significant number of households were headed by women;and a number of women in various part of the country also participatedin parliamentary elections (Rackin, 19-20). It is necessary,therefore, to balance this kind of historical evidence against therhetorical evidence that we find in contemporary texts. The attempt toprescribe and define female roles and responsibilities reflects ananxious reaction to social change, an attempt to arrest progress andestablish a conservative status quo. These anxieties and the contestedground concerning the acceptable role of women in early modern societyinevitably affects the presentation of women in the plays and poe try ofthe period. In reading Shakespeares texts, it is possible to discoveraspects of the discourse of patriarchal authority as well as evidenceof womens power as agents in their own destinies. Whilst the notionof woman as the weaker vessel often informs the construction ofcharacter in Shakespeares work, I intend to argue that a closeexamination reveals that, in spite of the social restraints placed uponthem, these women often reveal a strength that goes beyond anythingthat may be expected. 2 The Rape of Lucrece Shakespeares narrative poem, The Rape of Lucrece, is based onclassical sources in Livy and Ovid and so there are some necessaryconstraints upon the actual plot of the poem. For example, Lucrecessuicide derives from the source materials and, in the context of LivysThe History of Rome from Its Foundation, this event is instrumental inending the reign of kings and instituting the Roman Republic. It isnecessary, therefore, to understand that the classical story primarilyexemplifies the abuse of tyrannical rulers and has a deeply politicalsignificance. While St Augustine later argued that the suicide ofLucrece was, from a Christian theological standpoint, culpable,nonetheless in the classical world Lucreces death was celebrated asboth tragic and heroic (Hendricks, 2000). We must, therefore,distinguish between the story that Shakespeare inherited and what hehas done with it as a narrative: to discuss Lucreces suicide as thoughit were an optional plot device is to misunderstand the nature o f thesource material. It is a given that Lucrece will commit suicide, butthe way in which Shakespeare has constructed the narrative and the waythat he has characterised the participants in this story carries aweight of significance. The poem concentrates not so much on theexternal events of the story, but on the internal experience of thecharacters or, as Maus (1986, 67) comments, the poem concentrates notupon action but upon what happens in the interstices between theimportant moments when two people [make] important decisions. There are two significant tropes within this poem that are crucial tothe portrayal of Lucreces character and are pertinent to the questionof her strength. One of these tropes has been discussed by CoppeliaKahn (1995, 42) where she argues that Shakespeare clearly blames menfor exercising several kinds of unfair advantages over women and thathe leans heavily on the traditional conception of womans physical,moral and intellectual inferiority to man. She is refe rring to thepassage in which men are compared with marble and women with wax: For men have marble, women waxen minds, And therefore are they formed as marble will. The weak oppressed, thimpression of strange kinds Is formed in them by force, by fraud, or skill. Then call them not the authors of their ill, No more than wax shall be accounted evil Wherein is stamped the semblance of a devil. (1240-1246) Kahn (1995, 23) argues that Lucrece is the victim of a patriarchalsystem and that Shakespeare uses the patriarchy of the classical worldto mirror his contemporary society. The trope of the marble and thewax therefore emphasises the pliability of women and their inability tohave any control over their destiny in a patriarchal society that soseverely restricts their power to act, or even to take moralresponsibility for themselves. In Kahns reading, Lucrece does,indeed, seem to have taken a waxlike impression of societys valueswith respect to her status as her husbands possession and the way inwhich she sees herself as a de-valued object when she is tainted orstained by rape. However, the poem also proposes an alternativetrope that seems crucial to an understanding of the nature of women.At the pivotal moment when Tarquin has entered Lucreces bedroom anddisclosed his intention to rape her, Shakespeare introduces a picturethat may call into question the comparable strengths of men and wo men:that of the marble and the water. Until this moment, the poem is constructed to show the readerTarquins point of view. One stanza particularly creates a directidentification between the reader and Tarquin: So that in ventring ill we leave to be The things we are for that which we expect; And this ambitious foul infirmity, In having much, torments us with defect Of that we have: so we do neglect The thing we have; and all, for want of wit, Make something nothing by augmenting it. (148-154) By using we we we us we we we, Shakespeare removes thespace between Tarquin and the reader, implicating the reader in thekind of rash risk-taking action where Tarquin is shown pawning hishonour to obtain his lust (156). Similarly, in Tarquins inner debateregarding whether he should carry out his intention to rape Lucrece(181-301) and in his reaction when he sees her asleep (365-441), thereader has full access to his thoughts and emotions, while Lucrece ispresented as an object whose external attributes are described inextensive detail yet to whose inner experience there is no access.The blazon description of Lucrece as she sleeps does indeed bear outNancy Vickerss (1985, 96) assertion that the canonical legacy ofdescription in praise of beauty is, after all, a legacy shapedpredominantly by male imagination for the male imagination; it is, inlarge part, the product of men talking to men about women. The firstthird of the poem does, indeed, present Lucrece as a silent presence, at hing talked about, but apparently without a voice of her own. Yet the crucial turning point of the poem occurs when she is awoken byTarquin. This act of awakening coincides with the sudden access thatis given to the reader to Lucreces inner experience and her voice inthe poem. Until this point, the poem attributes some reported speechto her, but the first time when her words are recorded as direct speechoccurs in the stanza which begins Quoth she (575). From this pointonward, the narrative becomes intensely concerned with Lucreces innerexperience, in her perception of the harm done to herself and herhusband as well as in her decision to commit suicide. Hercontemplation of a painting of the siege of Troy similarly enables thereader to identify with her as a person who is imaginatively engagedwith a work of art and as a person who is able to argue about moral andphilosophical issues in her own mind. It is at this point of apparent transformation in the readersperception of Lucrece whe n Shakespeare introduces his second tropewhich, I believe, is crucial to the portrayal of Lucrece, when thepoems narrator comments: Tears harden lust, though marble wear withraining (560). Although this is ostensibly a comment on Lucrecesinability to deflect Tarquin from his course by her tears and pleas, itsimultaneously proposes that even the hardness and permanence of marblecan be worn down by something as seemingly soft as water. The Galenichumoural system opposed the wet, female humour with the dry, malehumour and so this picture of water that eventually erodes marble canbe seen not just as an inversion of the hard = strong / soft = weakequation, but also as a specific reference to the wet and dry humoursof men and women. When viewed in the long term, water is stronger thanmarble and this image is re-iterated, when Lucrece herself takes up theimage: For stones dissolved to water do convert (592). AlthoughLucreces pleas for mercy are ineffective in this moment, her wordsneverthe less alert the reader to the relative strengths of stone andwater in the longer term and later her realisation that Time can wastehuge stones with little water drops (959) leads her to curse Tarquin: Disturb his hours of rest with restless trances; Afflict him in his bed with bedrid groans; Let there bechance him pitiful mischances To make him moan, but pity not his moans. Stone him with hardned hearts harder than stones, And let mild women to him lose their mildness, Wilder to him than tigers in their wildness. (967-973) . Atthis point, then, Lucreces line of thought has linked the image ofhearts harder than stones with the reversal of mild women who are nolonger helpless prey, but instead predatory tigers. In the early partof the poem, Lucrece is persistently depicted as a passive victim andthis is emphasised by twin images of predator and prey, such as thenight owl and the dove (360), a serpent and a sleeping woman (362-3), afalcon and a fowl (506-7), a cockatrice and a hind (540-3), a cat and amouse (554-5), a wolf and a lamb (679). Although Lucrece is physicallyunable to protect herself from Tarquin, after he leaves, this imageryis no longer used and Lucrece gains an active voice and a moralpresence that eventually lead her to the act of suicide. Henricks(2000, 115), comments that Shakespeare gives Lucrece a psychologicalcomplexity, interiority and self-awareness. The presentation of Lucreces moral complexity seems to be at oddswith the men in the narrative. Her husband is depicted as a man who isat fault from his initial boasting of his wife as a materialpossession, thereby exposing her to thieves (29-35), and he is laterdescribed as the hopeless merchant of this loss (1659). His finalignominy is the ridiculous squabble with Lucretius over ownership: The one doth call her his, the other his; Yet neither may possess the claim they lay. The father says, Shes mine. O mine she is, Replies her husband: do not take away My sorrows interest; let no mourner say He weeps for her, for she was only mine, And only must be wailed by Collatine. (1793-1799) Brutus takes the knife from Lucreces side and burying in Lucrecewound his follys show (1810), he begins to admonish Collatine andLucretius. In this way, her death is presented as having a redemptivesignificance, not only for Brutus, but also for Rome itself. Although,within the Christian theological tradition, suicide is condemned,nonetheless Shakespeare deliberately chose as his theme a story inwhich a suicide has a positive political effect and is placed within aheroic tradition. The Rape of Lucrece depicts a woman in her most vulnerable moment whois unable to resist her enemy. Yet it could be argued that she trulyfinds a way of fulfilling her assertion that I am the mistress of myfate (1069). Lucrece, though she is entirely situated within apatriarchal discourse that constructs her as her husbands possession,is neither silent nor weak. Finally, like water on marble, she has asubtle strength. 3. Hamlet In the play, Hamlet, Shakespeare presents the audience with two femalecharacters who are quite unlike Lucrece. It has been noted thatLucrece undergoes a transition from her initial silence and is given avoice and an interior life that dominates more than half of the poem.Yet Gertrude and Ophelia, in contrast, are chiefly characterised byhaving very little to say. Showalter (1985, 78) says of Ophelia: She appears in only five of the plays twenty scenes; the pre-playcourse of her love story with Hamlet is known only by a few ambiguousflashbacks. Her tragedy is subordinated in the play; unlike Hamlet,she does not struggle with moral choices or alternatives. Lisa Jardine (1995, 316) makes a similar point about Gertrude, thatshe speaks fewer lines than any other major character in the play.It is therefore incumbent upon the audience or reader to fill in thegaps for these characters, who say so little for themselves. It may beargued that both Gertrude and Ophelia are presented as conforming to anearly modern stereotype of correct feminine behaviour and that theirpresence within a patriarchal society has had the effect of deprivingthem of the opportunity for either action or speech. It seems that Ophelia is the character who most epitomises theposition of a woman who is controlled by the patriarchal structuresaround her. She is presented as a woman of virtue who is obedient toher father and brother. Her reticence in the first scene in which shespeaks is effectively demonstrated by an extreme economy of words.When Laertes departs for France, her speeches are limited to halflines, single lines and pairs of lines as she receives instructionsf rom Polonius and Laertes regarding her behaviour. Although PhyllisRackin (2000, 22) has recently questioned the scholarly consensus thatrespectable women were expected to stay at home, that they wereeconomically dependent on fathers and husbands, and that they weresubjected to constant surveillance by jealous men, obsessively anxiousabout their sexual fidelity, it is nonetheless true that both fatherand brother are preoccupied by the risk of Ophelia losing her virginityand thus ruining herself and bringing dishonour to her male relatives.Ophelia has only one speech of longer than two lines in which toexpress her reaction to these instructions, but her initial obedienceturns into a comment upon male hypocrisy: I shall theffect of this good lesson keep As watchman to my heart. But good my brother, Do not as some ungracious pastors do, Show me the steep and thorny way to heaven, Whiles like a puffd and reckless libertine Himself the primrose path of dalliance treads, And recks not his own rede. (I.iii.45-51) Poloniuss subsequent conversation with Ophelia confirms this view,but he is plain about her responsibilities to him and unapologeticabout the double standards that operate in this society. He begins byreferring to the need for Ophelia to protect her own honour (I.iii.97),but he then moves on to his real concern: Tender yourself more dearly/ Or youll tender me a fool (I.iii107-109). Shortly afterwards hestates: For the Lord Hamlet, Believe so much in him that he is young, And with a larger tether may he walk Than may be given you. (I.iii.122-126) Ophelia has the last line in this scene and it is at least outwardly- an expression of compliance: I shall obey, my lord (I.iii.136).However, her conversation with Polonius makes it clear that she hasbeen conducting a relationship with Hamlet for which she had not soughther fathers prior permission. This is perhaps an example of thecomplexities of courtship and marriage that existed in early modernEngland. On one hand, there is evidence that arranged marriage wasprobably still the norm in practice, even though marrying for lovebecomes the ideal on stage (Belsey, 2002, 129); but on the other handthere is also evidence that a more uncertain situation existed wherepreliminary decisions were made by the young people; the parents wereusually brought into the discussion only later'(Amussen, 1999, 94) .Ophelias behaviour suggests that the latter was a more accuratedescription of her situation. Ophelias ability to express herself continues to be severelyrestricted throughout the scene in w hich she is confronted by Hamlet(III.i) and in the Mouse Trap scene (III.ii). However, she doeseventually find a voice, and it is through her madness that she isfinally able to confront the ultimate embodiment of male authority: theking. Ophelias use of folk songs as a way of expressing a sexualisedsensibility is in stark contrast to the verbal control of her earlierscenes, yet the meaning of her words carries the same message, asHattaway (2002, 114) comments: what is significant is its exposure ofthe double standard: a man gains honour among his own sex by virtue ofsexual conquests, while by the same activity a woman loses hers. Thiscontradiction can be seen as central to the character of Ophelia and itultimately destroys her. Showalter (1985, 91) comments that somefeminists have regarded Ophelias madness as a form of protest andrebellion. For many feminist theorists, she states, the madwomanis a heroine, a powerful figure who rebels against the family and thesocial order. It is al so possible, however, to argue that Opheliascryptic comments on her plight are contained by her madness and thatany attempt to operate outside of the strictures of patriarchy isforeclosed by her death. Ophelias madness has proved to be apowerful symbol of female insanity over the last four centuries: wecould provide a manual of female insanity by chronicling illustrationsof Ophelia; this is so because the illustrations of Ophelia have playeda major role in the theoretical construction of female insanity'(Showalter, 1985, 80). With the benefit of four hundred years ofhindsight, therefore, Ophelias madness has attained a symbolicsignificance which is a contested site of meaning. Gertrudes part in the play has also provoked a great deal of commentand controversy. Jardine (1995, 316) comments upon the phenomenon ofblame that has become attached to Gertrude. Hamlets apparentobsession with her behaviour has been the subject of muchpsychoanalytical interpretation. However, the recent empha sis onviewing early modern literature within a historicist framework haspresented an alternative to the essentially anachronistic process ofapplying a nineteenth century theoretical framework to a seventeenthcentury play. With a greater historical awareness, it is possible toview Hamlets concerns in a different way: the anxiety about hismothers behaviour that preoccupies him and distracts him from hisostensible duty to avenge the death of his father can be explained byhis mothers apparently unfeminine and inappropriate sexuality.Hamlet describes Gertrudes relationship with Claudius as hot, lustfuland bestial: Nay, but to live In the rank sweat of an enseamed bed, Stewd in corruption, honeying and making love Over the nasty sty! (III.iv.91-94) Disgusted by the physical evidence Gertrudes sexuality, Hamlet hasthree issues with his mothers behaviour: he has identified that she ishot (a sign of masculinity in Galens humoural system), he is concernedat the speed with which she has transferred her affiliation from oldHamlet to Claudius (thus refuting the requirement that women should beconstant); and she also seems to behave with too much liberty. As isclear from Poloniuss rebuke to Ophelia, men could be permitted agreater freedom, but a womans freedom to act was severelycircumscribed. Gertrudes lack of restraint is seen by Hamlet asdangerous, both socially and politically. Hamlet is therefore dismayedby the fact that his mother is behaving in such a way as to go beyondthe conventional requirements of feminine behaviour and that she is, inhis eyes, encroaching onto male territory. Though it is true thatGertrude does not have many lines, her role is crucial to Hamletsstate of mind and to his ability to act in a way that he perce ives asmanly. In marrying Claudius, Gertrude has also retained politicalpower as queen and this has almost certainly had the effect of barringHamlet from inheriting the throne from his dead father. It can beargued, then, that in her relationship with Hamlet she has a level ofpersonal and political power that is the cause of his inability to takethe action that feels is necessary to avenge the death of his father. Gertrude and Ophelia, though they have relatively few lines, both havepivotal roles to play in Hamlet. Their influence over the outcome ofthe play is far in excess of the number of lines spoken by them. Bothof them are seen to go beyond what was the conventionally idealisedfeminine roles ascribed to them by early modern society. That theirbehaviour causes anxiety in the male characters in the play is clear:Laertes, Polonius, Claudius and Hamlet are all preoccupied by theirbehaviour, yet are unable to exert the necessary control thatpatriarchal power structures require of th em. Although the socialnorms of patriarchy are clearly inscribed into this play, the womencharacters display a level of non-conformity that enables them tosubvert the power structures that seek to restrain them. Shakespearehas inscribed into this play a complexity of characterisation in bothGertrude and Ophelia that denies the simplistic category of femaleweakness into which their society might have tried to fit them. 4. King Lear Ann Thompson (1991, 125) has commented on the difficulties thatthis play creates in that too much critical attention has turned KingLear into a play exclusively or primarily about male power, butKathleen McLuskie (1985, 103) argues that the text containspossibilities for subverting these meanings and the potential forreconstructing them in feminist terms. In the opening scene of theplay, we are presented with what McLuskie refers to as a love test,based on the structure of a folk tale. The King creates a situationwhereby the fate of his kingdom and his daughters depends upon theirverbal declarations of love. However, if the ideal type of womanhood,as defined in early modern society, lies in its silence and modestrestraint, is could be argued that Lear is tempting his daughters intoerror by requiring such public verbal displays. He exposes hisdaughters to the unseemliness of a living woman conveying her feelingsin a public format (Barker Kamps, 1995, 4). Shakespeare is thusproblemati sing Lears behaviour from the outset: he embarks upon acourse that demands that his daughters prove their love by floutingpatriarchal conventions. The women are thus trapped: whatever they sayor do not say, they run the risk of disobedience, either to theirfather or to the wider requirements of proper feminine behaviour. In Lears three daughters and their responses to this situation, weare presented with alternative types of female behaviour and the playalso focuses attention on their agency as it relates to the patriarchalstructures within which they operate. The play could be said to be anillustration of the weakness and folly of two old men Lear andGloucester who, as their physical powers diminish, lose their socialand political powers as well. Just as the source of womens weaknesscan be traced to their bodies, so it might be argued that a bodilydecline in old men renders them weak and vulnerable. In the subsequentpower struggle, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia all make choices tha tgovern their future and that determine the course of the subsequentdrama. Although this leads to the depiction of Goneril and Regan aspredatory adulteresses, whilst Cordelia ultimately becomes a victim whois unable to survive, it is nonetheless true to say that all three ofthese women seize opportunities to make their own choices anddecisions. From the outset, Cordelia is characterised as the pictureof modest womanly constraint, as she punctuates her sisters smoothrendition of filial loyalty with comments such as: What shall Cordeliaspeak? Love and be silent (I.i.61) and Then poor Cordelia! / And yetnot so; since I am sure my loves / More ponderous than my tongue'(I.i.75-77). Cordelias virtue lies in her observation of duty andobedience and she is aware that every adult woman must divide her dutyand obedience between her husband and her father. Though this stanceis shown to place her in a double bind that leads to exile and thendeath, yet she has exercised her own choice and has re sisted pressurefrom her father to take another course. In choosing the path of truthto herself, she has become her own moral arbiter and is the first ofthe three daughters to openly rebel against her fathers wishes,regarding her own conscience as a higher authority that his. In contrast to Cordelia, Goneril and Regan show themselves to be awareof the political strategies through which power is obtained and theyare willing to flatter their father in order to gain it. The playfollows the subsequent reversal of power in which Lear becomes anobedient father (I.iv.232), while Goneril and Regan become predatorycreatures, as for example detested kite (I.iv.260) andvulture'(II.iv.132). This predatory aspect to their nature is alsoplayed out in their sexual relationships, particularly with referenceto Edmund. Though Goneril and Regan use their strength for evil ends,it is nonetheless clear that they are able to act beyond what might beconsidered as their gendered feminine roles. In the unive rse of KingLear moral choices have consequences and it is clear that they areultimately punished for their crimes, as they finally prey on oneanother. Nonetheless, before they meet their end, they have beenpresent on the battlefield, a far cry from the domestic sphere in whichit was more normal for women to operate. Goneril and Regan have, in aperverse reversal of patriarchal power, asserted their ability tostruggle to satisfy their own desire for sexual and political power anin doing so have created a model for Shakespeares most transgressivefemale character. 5. Macbeth In what Zimmerman (2000, 320) describes as the hallucinatory realm ofShakespeares Macbeth, the picture of a society which is in meltdownis inextricably linked with the portrayal of gender categories thatshift and collapse. The women characters in Macbeth the witches andLady Macbeth drive Macbeth forward in his course and exercise acontrolling power over his destiny. In that Lady Macbeth is portrayedas the energising and controlling force that impels Macbeth to killDuncan, she is certainly characterised as being stronger willed thatMacbeth. When Macbeth hesitates, she accuses him of cowardice: Artthou afeard / To be the same in thine act and valour, As thou art indesire? (I.vii.39-41). Furthermore, she invokes the image ofmanliness and courage in action: When you durst do it, then you werea man (I.vii.49). She shows no sign of entertaining the doubts andworries about failure that Macbeth voices. Yet, crucially, she cannotcarry out the murder herself and this is for a very specific r eason:Had he not resembled / My father as he slept, I had dont'(II.ii.13). In this moment, when Macbeth is in the very act ofmurdering Duncan, Lady Macbeth identifies the source of power that shecannot overcome: patriarchal power. For all her strength of character,Lady Macbeth is thwarted by the socially gendered role of a womanwithin a patriarchal society. Her attempts to subvert her femininerole are symbolically represented by the presence of the witches, whosepresence on the margin of society demonstrate the destiny of women whochallenge the status quo.. In early modern England, the social exclusion of some categories ofwomen was associated with witchcraft and it is the marginalized natureof feminine power that is embodied by the weird sisters. Newman (1991,56) comments: Not only were the practitioners of witchcraft in England women, theywere often disorderly or unruly women who transgressed cultural codesof femininity. Significantly, all those behaviours transgressingtraditional gender roles were conflated a witch typically was said tobe a scold, a shrew; to live unquietly with her husband; to be alight woman or a common harlot witches were regularly accused ofsexual misconduct. Women who were thus identified as transgressive were criminalizedand punished. In Macbeth, the witches are situated outside of thenormal bounds of society, physically located on a heath. Theirsituation with regard to the normal bounds of femininity also placesthem outside. As Banquo comments, their humanity as well as theirfemininity is in doubt: What are these, So witherd and so wild in their attire, That look not like thinhabitants o th earth, And yet are ont? Live you? Or are you aught That man may question? You seem to understand me, By each at once her choppy finger laying Upon her skinny lips: you should be women, And yet your beards forbid me to interpret That you are so.(I.iii.39-47) Here the utilisation of female characters to reveal what is mostevil and fearful reveals the anxiety of early modern society aboutwomen who refuse to conform to traditional gender roles and usurp thepower which legitimately belongs to men. Thus, Banquo is confounded bythe androgynous appearance of the witches who should be women, but havean appearance that is at odds with normal expectations. Rackin (2005,132) cites this as an example of the prototypically modern assumptionthat the qualities of gentleness and pity are naturally grounded inwomens bodies. The social unease which these women embody is perhaps indicative ofthe uncertainties associated with the growth in mercantilism of theearly modern period. Literacy increased during the reign of Elizabeth;cities expanded and there was a growing middle class who took advantageof the possibilities of social mobility. These social changesinevitably created uncertainty and the unease appears to have beenparticularly focussed upon changes i n womens behaviour. Sermons andpamphlets of the period attempted to divert the flow of change byrestoring the older certainties and the traditional order. LadyMacbeth embodies the possibility and also the fear that is engenderedby these social conditions. She is strongly motivated by ambition andshe urges her husband to take the necessary action to achieve hergoal. In a society based on order and authority, such behaviour isdangerous. Just as the witches femininity has been called intoquestion, so Lady Macbeths pursuit of power is seen to reflect anaspect of her gender; her femininity has to be actively suppressed inorder to take action. She calls up the powers of evil to unsex her,replacing the soft and nurturing aspects of her nature with cruelty andmurder. Come, you Spirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, And fill me, from the crown to the toe, top-full Of direst cruelty! Come to my womans breasts, And take my milk for gall, you murthring ministers, Wherever in your sightless substances You wait on Natures mischief!(I.v.40- 43, 47-50) In this overt rejection of the social expectations of femininity, LadyMacbeth allies herself with the witches and it is thereforeunsurprising that the outcome of her action is that her state becomesmarginalized by her descent into madness. As with Ophelia, madness isa state that is associated with existing outside of the normativeboundaries of a socially gendered role. In this state, although LadyMacbeth comes from the aristocracy and is now Queen, her positionbecomes strongly associated with that of the witches, who areoutsiders. Janet Adelman (1995, 105) argues Lady Macbeths affiliationwith the witches becomes an embodiment of female power and that theplay becomes a representation of primitive fears about male identityand autonomy itself, about those looming female presences who threatento control ones actions and ones mind, to constitute ones very self,even at a distance. The physical distancing of the witches ismirrored in the psychological distance that Lady Macbeth creates byp lacing herself beyond the boundaries of normal Christian discourse inher speech Come you spirits By articulating a determination thatrejects the constructions of normal maternal feeling, she similarlyplaces herself beyond the normative boundaries of gendered socialdiscourse: I have given suck, and know How tender tis to love the babe that milks me: I would, while it was smiling in my face, Have pluckd my nipple from his boneless gums, And dashd the brains out, had I so sworn As you have done to this. (I.vii.54-59). Lady Macbeths direst cruelty is a means of refuting the femininerole imposed upon her in exchange for the power of action. Normally,action is considered the prerogative of male characters. When Macbethhesitates before killing Duncan, his manhood is called into question;Hamlets hesitation is similarly constructed and so the part of takingviolent action is specifically gendered as masculine. It is necessary,therefore, for Lady Macbeth to adopt the rhetorical device of rejectingher femininity in order to exercise power. Yet she is unable to sustain herself after the desired action has beeneffected and, while Macbeth projects his fears into hallucinations yetremains fully functional as a warrior, Lady Macbeth breaks down andkills herself (Sprengnether, 1995, 13). Although Lady Macbeth hasinitially been portrayed as a character who energises her husbandsambitions and rejects the softer side of her nature in order to gainpower, the ultimate expense of this strategy becomes clear when herco urse towards madness and death is as rapid and decisive asOphelias. Although there is an element of ambiguity that surroundsthe question of whether Ophelia and Gertrude commit suicide, it isclear that Lady Macbeth takes her own life. Like Lucrece, she is themistress of her own fate. Although she has, until this point, livedout her ambition through her husband, her death signals a final breakfrom him and she is described as having by self and violent hands /Took off her life (V.ix.36-37). Ultimately, there is no place for herwithin the patriarchal bounds and so no place for her within society.Belsey (1985, 185) expresses the problematic situation of women who donot accept their gendered roles in this way: The demonization of women who subvert the meaning of femininity iscontradictory in its implications. It places them beyond meaning,beyond the limits of what is intelligible. At the same time it endowsthem with a (supernatural) power which it is precisely the project ofpatriarchy to deny. In Macbeth, Lady Macbeths power is indeed denied. Though, incomparison with Macbeth, she has temporarily appeared to have asuperior strength, her ultimate destiny is to be symbolicallyconfronted with the body of her sleeping father, whose power she cannotrefute. 5. Conclusion During the early modern era, an idealised construct of femininityand masculinity depended upon physiological and theological theorieswhich posited a binary opposition between the male and female and wasdefined in terms of strength and weakness. However, Shakespearesfemale characters are never as one-dimensional as these kinds ofdefinitions might suggest. Whilst it is clear that such categoriesoften inform the depictions of gender roles, Shakespeare presentswomens strengths as well as mens weaknesses. Real people are a mixof strengths and weaknesses and Shakespeare creates characters who arecomplex and layered in such a way as to have made their relevanceendure over four centuries. Though many of his female characters playout roles that are circumscribed by social norms and expectations andthough they often they attain their goals through the actions of men,they are not universally passive and disempowered. Neither are theyuniversally stronger or more morally virtuous than men. In The Rape ofLucrece, Shakespeare has created a tragic heroine who does, indeed,seem to have greater moral dignity and strength than the malecharacters in the poem. In Hamlet, however, both Gertrude and Opheliaare more ambiguous presences whose strength, though significant totheir eventual fates, is circumscribed by their inability to controltheir destinies. In King Lear Shakespeare presents three women who, indiffering ways, exhibit the strength of purpose and resolve to maketheir own choices and thereby to affect their own fates. Finally, inMacbeth, we encounter a depiction of women as dangerously transgressiveoutsiders who only have in indirect access to power which is playedout within the boundaries of patriarchal power. Shakespeares tragicwomen may be marginalized and victimised, but their often pivotal rolesin Shakespeares tragedies offer evidence of the complex and contestednature of gender and power. BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Shakespeare, William, Macbeth. The Arden Shakespeare, edited by Kenneth Muir, 1951, London New York: Methuen. Shakespeare, William, King Lear. The Arden Shakespeare, edited by Kenneth Muir, 1972, London New York: Methuen. Shakespeare, William, Hamlet. The Arden Shakespeare, edited by Harold Jenkins, 1982, London New York: Methuen. Shakespeare, William, The Poems. The New Cambridge Shakespeare, edited by John Roe, 1992, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Secondary sources Adelman, Janet, 1995. Born of Woman: Fantasies of Maternal Power inMacbeth, in Shirley Nelson Garner and Madelon Sprengnether, eds.,Shakespearean Tragedy and Gender, Bloomington and Indianapolis: IndianaUniversity Press, 105-134. Amussen, Susan Dwyer, 1999. The Family and the Household in DavidScott Kastan, A Companion to Shakespeare, Oxford: Blackwell, 85-99. Aughterson, Kate, 1995. Renaissance Woman: A Sourcebook:Constructions of Femininity in England, London New York:Routledge. Barker, Deborah and Kamps, Ivo, 1995. Shakespeare and Gender: AnIntroduction, in Deborah Barker and Ivo Kamps, eds., Shakespeare andGender: A History, London: Verso, 1-21. Belsey, Catherine, 1985. The Subject of Tragedy: Identity and Difference in Renaissance Drama, London New York: Methuen. Belsey, Catherine, 2002. Gender and Family in Claire McEachern,The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 123-141. Callaghan, Dympna, 1989. Women and Gender in Renaissance Tragedy, New York: Harvester. Dusinberre, Juliet, 1996. Squeaking Cleopatras: Gender andPerformance in Antony and Cleopatra, in James C. Bulman, ed.,Shakespeare, Theory and Performance, London New York: Routledge,46-67. Michael Hattaway, 1990. Drama and Society, in A.R. Braunmuller Michael Hattaway (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to EnglishRenaissance Drama, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 91-126. Hendricks, Margot, 2000. A Word, Sweet Lucrece: Confession,Feminism, and The Rape of Lucrece, in Dympna Callaghan, ed., AFeminist Companion to Shakespeare, Oxford: Blackwell, 103-118. Howard, Jean E., 1988. Crossdressing, The Theatre, and GenderStruggle in Early Modern England, Shakespeare Quarterly, 39, 4,418-40. Howard, Jean E., 2003. Feminist Criticism, in Stanley Wells Lena Cowen Orlin (eds.), Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide, Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 411-423. Jardine, Lisa, 1989. Still Harping on Daughters: Women and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare, New York London: Harvester. Jardine, Lisa, 1995. Afterword: What Happens in Hamlet?, inDeborah Barker and Ivo Kamps, eds., Shakespeare and Gender: A History,London: Verso, 316-326. Kahn, Coppelia, 1995. The Rape in Shakespeares Lucrece, inDeborah Barker and Ivo Kamps, eds., Shakespeare and Gender: A History,London: Verson, 22-46. Maus, Katharine Eisaman, 1986. Taking Tropes Seriously: Languageand Violence in Shakespeares Rape of Lucrece, Shakespeare Quarterly,37, 1, 66-82. McLuskie, Kathleen, 1985. The Patriarchal Bard: Feminist Criticism andShakespeare: King Lear and Measure for Measure, in Jonathan Dollimoreand Alan Sinfeild, eds., Political Shakespeare: Essays in CulturalMaterialism, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 88-108. Newman, Karen, 1991. Fashioning Femininity and English Renaissance Drama, Chicago London: University of Chicago Press. Rackin, Phyllis, 2005. Shakespeare and Women, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rose, Jacqueline, 1995. Hamlet the Mona Lisa of Literature, inDeborah Barker and Ivo Kamps, eds., Shakespeare and Gender: A History,London: Verso, 104-118. Rutter, Carol, 1988. Clamorous Voices: Shakespeares Women Today, London: Womens Press. Showalter, Elaine, 1985. Representing Ophelia: Women, Madness, andthe Responsibilities of Feminism, in Patricia Parker and GeoffreyHartman, eds., Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, New York London: Methuen, 77-94. Sprengnether, Madelon, 1996. Introduction: The Gendered Subject ofShakespearean Tragedy, in Shirley Nelson Garner and MadelonSprengnether, eds., Shakespearean Tragedy and Gender, Bloomington andIndianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1-27. Thompson, Ann, 1991. Are There Any Women in King Lear?, in ValerieWayne, ed., The Matter of Difference: Materialist Feminist Criticism ofShakespeare, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 117-128. Vickers, Nancy, 1985. The Blazon of Sweet Beautys Best:Shakespeares Lucrece, in Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman, eds.,Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, New York London: Methuen,95-115. Zimmerman, Susan, 2000. Duncans Corpse, in Dympna Callaghan,ed., A Feminist Companion to Shakespeare, Oxford: Blackwell. 320-338.

Is Schizophrenia A Serious Mental Illness - 934 Words

What is schizophrenia? Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that interferes with a person’s ability to think clearly, manage emotions, make decisions and relate to others. It is a complex, long-term medical illness Affects about 1% of Americans. The average age of onset tends to be in the late teens to the early 20s for men, and the late 20s to early 30s for women. Patho We do not completely understand the patho of the disease however, Neuroimaging studies show differences between the brains of those with schizophrenia and those without this disorder. For example, the ventricles are somewhat larger, there is decreased brain volume in medial temporal areas, and changes are seen in the hippocampus. Abnormalities of the dopaminergic system are thought to exist in schizophrenia. 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Americas Involvement In World War Two When War Broke Out , There Was Essay Example For Students

Americas Involvement In World War Two When War Broke Out , There Was Essay Americas involvement in World War TwoWhen war broke out , there was no way the world could possibly know the severity of this guerre. Fortunately one country saw and understood that Germany and its allies would have to be stopped. Americas Involvement in World War two not only contributed in the eventual downfall of the insane Adolph Hitler and his Third Reich, but also came at the precise time and moment. Had the united states entered the war any earlier the consequences might have been worse. Over the years it has been an often heated and debated issue on whether the united states could have entered the war sooner and thus have saved many lives. To try to understand this we must look both at the peoples and governments point of view. Just after war broke out in Europe, President Roosevelt hurriedly called his cabinet and military advisors together. There it was agreed that the United states stay neutral in these affairs. One of the reasons given was that unless America was directly threatened they had no reason to be involved. This reason was a valid one because it was the American policy to stay neutral in any affairs not having to with them unless American soil was threatened directly. Thus the provisional neutrality act passed the senate by seventy-nine votes to two in 1935. On August 31, Roosevelt signed it into law. In 1936 the law was renewed, and in 1937 a ?comprehensive and permanent? neutrality act was passed (Overy 259).The desire to avoid ?foreign entanglements? of all kinds had been an American foreign policy for more than a century. A very real ?geographical Isolation? permitted the United States to ?fill up the empty lands of North America free from the threat of foreign conflict?(Churchill 563).Even if Roosevelt had wanted to do more in this European crisis (which he did not), there was a factor too often ignored by critics of American policy-American military weakness. When asked to evaluate how many troops were available if and when the Unite d States would get involved, the army could only gather a mere one hundred thousand, when the French, Russian and Japanese armies numbered in millions. Its weapons dated from the first World War and were no match compared to the new artillery that Germany and its allies had. ?American soldiers were more at home with the horse than with the tank? (Overy 273). The air force was just as bad if not worse. In September 1939 the Air Corps had only 800 combat aircrafts again compared with Germanys 3600 and Russias 10,000 . American military Aviation (AMA) in 1938 was able to produce only 1,800, 300 less than Germany, and 1,400 less than Japan. Major Eisenhower, who was later Supreme commander of the Allied forces in the second World War, complained that America was left with ?only a shell of military establishment? (Chapman 234 ). As was evident to Roosevelt the United states military was in no way prepared to enter this European crisis. Another aspect that we have to consider is the peopl es views and thoughts regarding the United States going to war. After all let us not forget that the American government is there ?for the people and by the people? and therefore the peoples view did play a major role in this declaration of Neutrality. In one of Roosevelts fireside chats he said ?We shun political commitments which might entangle us In foreign warsIf we face the choice of profits or peace-this nation must answer, the nation will answer ?we choose peace ?,in which they did. A poll taken in 1939 revealed that ninety-four per cent of the citizens did not want the united states to enter the war. The shock of World War one had still not left ,and entering a new war, they felt, would be foolish. In the early stages of the war American Ambassador to London was quoted saying ?Its the end of the world, the end of everything? ( Overy 261). As Richard Overy notes in The Road To War, this growing ?estrangement? from Europe was not mere selfishness. They were the values expresse d by secretary of state, Cordel Hull: ?a primary interest in peace with justice, in economic well-being with stability, and conditions of order under the law?. These were principles here on which most Americans (ninety-four percent as of 1939) agreed on. To promote these principles the United States would have to avoid all ?foreign entanglements?, or as Overy puts it ?any kind of alliance or association outside the western hemisphere?. Instead the United States should act as an arbitre in world affairs, ?encouraging peaceful change where necessary? and most and for all discouraging aggression (Overy 263). Why risk going to war, when it is contrary to American policy which most if not all Americans were in agreement with and not mentioning the fact that the American military was in shambles. Yet another factor that led to this decision of Neutrality by President Roosevelt was the American Economy. The health of the American economy could not be jeopardized, whatever was happening els ewhere. It was Roosevelts view that the United states would fare well (economically speaking) whether Europe went to war or not. ?Gold was flowing in from Europes capitals; orders were mounting daily for equipment and supplies of all kinds; America was building a battleship for Stalin, aero-engines for France? (Overy 277). For most of the 1930s the United states traded as openly with Germany and Japan, as it did with any other country. Japan relied on fuel oil and scrap iron until 1941. Germany was one of the United States ?most important markets? during the 1930s. American investments in Germany increased by forty per cent between 1936 and 1940 ( Wilson 291). America was steadily regaining the prosperity that had diminished during World War 1. The real concern of American business was not ?the rights or wrongs of trading with fascism? but the fear that commercial rivals such as Japan and Germany would exclude American goods from Europe and Asia altogether (273). It is very easy to point and accuse the united states of being selfish, but one has to understand that any negative actions made would have resulted in the United States being almost if not completely out of the economic race. Would the United states have been as prosperous as it is today had they intervened any earlier? They probably would have not because at that time in history America needed a boost to return to its earlier status of being economically stable which Germany and its allies so adequately provided. Therefore President Roosevelt was not about to go to war with all axis powers thereby jeopardizing not only the safety of the American people but also the American economy which was so essential to a large and complex country that the United States was at the time. Unless American interests were directly threatened, Roosevelt hesitated to ?push the button? ( Churchill 542). On December 6, 1941 the Japanese Airforce led a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, completely eradicating the port. Fina lly President Roosevelt could wait no longer. America was now involved and not going to war would only endanger the United states more than it already was. On the following day Roosevelt argued that the attack ?had given us an opportunity?. Congress approved the declaration of war with only one dissenting voice. Eleanor Roosevelt noted that the effect of the Japanese attack was ?to release my husband from months and pent-up tension and anxiety?. Andrew Wheatcroft says in his book The Road To War, ? It is tempting to see Pearl Harbor as the crisis that Roosevelt was waiting for and did nothing to prevent?. Americas most vital interest, defense of American soil, had been challenged. At last America had to go to war and eventually bring an end to the rule of nazi Germany. The Americans upon declaring its Neutrality, gave additional encouragement to Japan and Germany to in a way ?take over the world?, and to Nazify it. Hitler had convinced himself that America had declined in the 1930s because of social crisis. This misconception also led Japan to confront the United States in 1941. Had the United States entered the war any earlier or later the consequences could have been much worse (If possible). Towards the end of the war Walter Lippmann reporter for the Herald Tribune recalled his experience:When I attempt to compare the America in which I was reared with the America of today, I am struck by how unconcerned I was as a young man with the hard questions which are the subject matter of history. I did not think about the security of the republic and how to defend it(Overy 341). Franklin Delano Roosevelt did think about the security of the republic and defended it magnificently. Leading the United States every step of the way President Roosevelt did a superior job in bringing America into war when he did. Evidently America entered World war 2 at the precise time and moment to once and for all take down Adolph Hitler and the third Reich. .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 , .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .postImageUrl , .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 , .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032:hover , .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032:visited , .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032:active { border:0!important; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032:active , .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032 .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf04ec147b2772030ecad11791c1ce032:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Christopher Columbus Essay

Towards More Balanced Treatment Of Culture -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Towards More Balanced Treatment Of Culture? Answer: Introducation In the 21st century, the global market place has become highly integrated and it is extremely important that the various business organizations tend to communicate clearly in order to make sure that all the deals are clearly laid out. The importance of multi cultures cannot be underestimated in today`s market place (Prasad, 2015). The various multi-cultural expectations need to be managed effectively in order to have a balanced environment. Given below are certain issues that lead to a business concern: If the owners of the business are not pro-active, this might lead to different cultural expectations and get the deal started on a wrong note. Formality, hierarchy and timings have different relevance to different cultures and these should be kept in mind before taking into consideration a negotiation or a business decision Very often, certain cultures may appear to be quite aggressive in their approach. Certain deals tend to take more time than the other countries and therefore, adequate care must be taken about these factors before engaging in a business relationship. There is a variety of cultures that are generally, `we` focused. This tends to have an impact on business style and marketing material. Therefore, it is extremely important to make sure that the egocentric component of `i` is identified or `we` oriented (Kinloch Metge, 2014). Body language also tends to play an important role in business transactions. Therefore, a basic guideline is to use openhanded gestures. Hence, it can be states that as globalization have open the trade boundaries of all regions, various business houses from different countries tend to interact with one another and culture tends to play a major role in their interactions. The above issues might come in between while these business communication activities and this is the reason cross-cultural communication is often considered to be a business issue. When two different businesses come together for a business deal, it becomes extremely important that the cultures of the different countries blend with one another. Business ethics states that two countries that are in business relationship with one another need to be considerate towards one another and understand their needs (Carbaugh, 2013). There should be equal amount of respect and appreciation from both the sides, which will lead to a peaceful transaction. However, this is not the case in case of a cross-cultural communication in business. When a cross-cultural communication takes place the two parties in center do not have a clear understanding of the requirements of one another and this may lead to actions that may harm the greater good of one party at the hands of the other party. Hence, it is extremely important that the parties in a business concern understand the do`s and donts of one another. The cross-cultural communication becomes an ethical concern because it affects the day-to-day working relationships, it determines the appropriate code of conduct and it plays a key role in the power and status distribution allocation of the two countries (Bochner, 2013). Understanding of ethics in a business by a professional may help in the following manner: It may help the executives to understand the do`s and donts in the other culture It may help in proper distribution of power and conduct It may also help the associates to reflect proper behaviour while transacting (Asante, 2013). It may help in a long lasting deal with the various associates. The ability to communicate effectively may prove to be a challenge in today`s market place. Even when the parties are aware of one anothers language. These mistakes in understanding might arise from ethical and cultural differences. There are numerous business example which have stated that the various poor communication among the parties tend to a failed deal. It also leads to poor communication which results in incorrect organizational management (Shebzukhova Bondarenko, 2014). Hence, it is considered important for an organization to understand the impact of cross-cultural o the business sector and this understanding will help the firm to create a competitive advantage and foster an environment where all cultures can come together and conduct their business. Recent economic challenges as in the increasing desire to expand this business have increased the need to develop an internal communication, which is necessary to control, and monitor the various threats. The society has lately become connected globally and this will also increase its ability to conduct business. These economic challenges have also made it important for the business to recruit a large number of employees from various cultural backgrounds. Hence, the business must understand how to communicate with them (Hurn Tomalin, 2013).. Therefore, as the economic era today requires sales and revenue from round the globe with the growth of various MNCs, the author has suggested that the Recent Economic challenges require the organization to develop a proper internal monitoring system so that the various external threats are analyzed. These threats may refer to economic conditions like recession, exchange rate fluctuation, change of political systems, events like Brexit, launch of new budgets and so on. As the business has been expanding considerably into beyond the countries of origin, it becomes increasingly important for the various business enterprises to make an effort and try to understand certain aspects of the other culture in order to make sure that they can easily cater to their needs (Young Schartner, 2014). However, proficiency in the cultural aspect necessarily does not mean that the business owners need to know everything about the culture. Their main requirement is that they need to be inquisitive and possess a thrust for knowledge. The business entrepreneurs must be able to able to have the habit of understanding when to listen and when to ask for help. A person is not expected to have the knowledge of every kind of cultural. He is just expected to be considerate towards it and be empathic. The business entrepreneur must be able to understand that in different cultures, things take place in a different manner and that it is extremely important to abide by the laws o f every cultural (Leung, Ang Tan, 2014). He must be able to listen and keep a check for the various hints suggested by the other forces, understand the need of the hour and speak up accordingly (Merkin, Taras Steel, 2014). When the person communicates to the other cultural party, they should make sure that they do not hurt any sentiments and communicate effectively. As the organizations have been expanding their scope of operation, it becomes extremely important or the business organization to have a vast pool of employees who are talented and belong to different backgrounds. This tends to increase and promote diversity management in the organization, which is the need of the hour. However, the components of a culture may differ from one another and they are hard to cope by (Padhi, 2016). A culture cannot be changed because it is the experience of several of years, which have been passed down. People belonging to a particular culture generally tend to have lower perceptions of the management from another culture. This aspect is difficult to change as suggested in the paper of reference and if the workers are forced to behave like one another, it diffuses creativity. Hence, for this reason it is extremely important to understand that the focus needs to lie on individual training. The focus on the individual should not be emphasized to change the cultural aspect of the person but to increase the person`s innovation skills. This innovation will reflect the cultural background of the person thereby making the production extremely diverse. Individual training needs to be given to the employees so that their communication skills can improve and this shall lead to fulfillment of the basic goals of an organization. Through this training, the employees will possess the ability to communicate clearly with one another and thereby infuse creativity into the organization (Chaney Martin, 2013). The advantage and knowledge of different cultures should be combined to prosper the growth of the firm Communication can be taken to be the key to success for any business organization. It is a critical aspect of any business company and it helps the organization to make the consumers understand and provide more information about their products and services. This shall help the enterprise in gaining a competitive advantage. It is often stated that those companies, which are able to communicate cross-culturally, are more successful and have a greater competitive advantage. This is because these companies have better communication within the organization and are able to devote more time and resources to conducting the actual operations of business and less time on solving the various external as well as internal communication problems (Law, Buhalis Cobanoglu, 2014). Communication helps the individual to communicate clearly and fulfill their needs. When these needs are fulfilled within the organization, various cultures tend to prosper. Business houses tend to adopt the different working styles, which as stated previously foster creativity and helps the organization to gain an edge (Jandt, 2017).Since various organizations tend to establish themselves in different regions, a cross-culturally diverse force will help in expansion. Hence, this communication shall help the firm to become a powerful company and perform better than their competitors. The home country is India. In India, the people have a passive communication style. The people do not have an open approach towards life and this tends to reflect in their business where the deals, which are made, are not that clear and this tends to dominate the business culture. Hindi is the official language (Fletcher Crawford, 2013). The Indians are quite diplomatic and do not believe in directness. They are hypocrites and may appear confused (Samovar et al., 2014). The Indians like to brag and adopt a self-promotional approach. Humor is considered to be offensive in business dealings. Word of mouth plays a huge role in business transactions. When comparing this to Australia, people in Australia have n open or active communication style. They tend to have an open approach towards life and this tends to reflect in their style of business. They are proactive and have an instant reply to all problems. English is the official and most spoke language. They are not diplomatic and tend to put directness before diplomacy. Very often, this aspect is taken to be as blunt in certain situations especially if taken from the point of view of country like India (Stahl Tung, 2015). However, in their own country, directness and instant replies are cherished and hence the failure to speak one`s mind may appear as hypocrisy or evasiveness. The Australians do not prefer bragging and for this reason, a self-promotional approach may be misunderstood in Australia thereby provoking a negative response. Australia is one of those cultures in which humor is considered to be pervasive (Richter et al., 2013). It is also acceptable in all kinds of situations and is even expected. The business people in Australia have a role of using first names for business references. As discussed earlier one of the differences that could be identified from the above is the self-bragging approach. The Australians have a subtle way of dealing with the various problems whereas the Indians have a bragging manner. The Australians do not believe in self-promotion but the Indians do. The Indians believe that by stating themselves as the best they might be able to attract a larger crowd. By attracting a larger crowd, they will be able to make more business. However, this is not the case for Australia (Eisenberg et al., 2013). The Australians believe that self-promotion or self-bragging is unethical and that actions speak louder than words, hence they dot believe in diplomacy also. This could lead to problems in business as in if an Australian company and an Indian company come into contact with one another then both the cultures shall crash as the Australians might not like the approach of the Indians towards the business and this might lead to mistrust and conflicts. When a business firm has a diverse management system then they will tend to become accustomed to the different working styles. The business must understand that cross-cultural differences might occur in the firms operations and this understanding will help the company to manage the people in a better manner when dealing with customers with a different cultural background (Ferraro Briody, 2017). The communication system of a firm comprises of values, rules ad practices and the thinking of the senior management. This system may enact as a chain in transmitting these norms associated with different countries throughout the culture. This communication system, which is acting as a transmitter, may act as a knowledge transmitter also. Intercultural communication, which takes place in a business enterprise, needs to consider the differences that are present in the organization. This tends to become a huge challenge for them to develop a synthesis between various workers in order to promote diversity. This is where the organizations tend to make huge mistakes (Adekola Sergi, 2016). They have a habit of overemphasizes the differences between these employees and tend to stereotype them to a particular type (Dunning, 2014). These stereo types may result in promotions being conceived and this tends to become a communication hindrance. Very often cultures are classified as high context and low context. High context is where the society is considered to be inter-dependent. The meanings attached to a single word may lead to various meanings. The body language also needs to be taken care of before approaching people from diverse cultures. A stereotype that the Australians may have about the Indians is that the Indians are very close-minded people. This thinking may derive from their thinking or from the way, they carry themselves. Indians tend to keep their ideas amongst themselves and this may lead to problems in perception of the Australia. The Australians may believe that the Indians do not believe in the modern society and that they are extremely regressive in their thinking. They may stereotype the Indians as against new ideas (Zhu Bargiela-Chiappini, 2013). However, it is not so the Indians though are not that opinionated, have progressive thinking. Just because of the presentation of a few the completely Indian society might be perceived as regressive but as stated it is not so. They are quite broad minded and tend to accept new ideas and concepts with an open mind. The Indians have contributed greatly too many new ideas and inventions. On the other hand, the Indians may perceive the Australians ass extremely open-minded and therefore believe that they do not have values or culture of their own. The Indians often believe that their culture is the best and that other cultures have no importance. They think that since Australians possess a progressive mind, they lack in values and cultures. However, this is not the case; the Australians have huge and deep cultures that date back to centuries (Czinkota Ronkainen, 2013). They have high family as well as business values which tend to have an impact on their decision making and code of conducts in a business. References Adekola, A., Sergi, B. S. (2016).Global business management: A cross-cultural perspective. Routledge. Asante, M. K. (2013).The global intercultural communication reader. Routledge. Bochner, S. (Ed.). (2013).Cultures in contact: Studies in cross-cultural interaction(Vol. 1). Elsevier. Carbaugh, D. (2013).Cultural communication and intercultural contact. Routledge. Chaney, L., Martin, J. (2013).Intercultural business communication. Pearson Higher Ed. Czinkota, M. R., Ronkainen, I. A. (2013).International marketing. Cengage Learning. Dunning, J. H. (2014).The Globalization of Business (Routledge Revivals): The Challenge of the 1990s. Routledge. Eisenberg, J., Lee, H. J., Brck, F., Brenner, B., Claes, M. T., Mironski, J., Bell, R. (2013). Can business schools make students culturally competent? Effects of cross-cultural management courses on cultural intelligence.Academy of Management Learning Education,12(4), 603-621. Ferraro, G. P., Briody, E. K. (2017).The cultural dimension of global business. Taylor Francis. Fletcher, R., Crawford, H. (2013).International marketing: an Asia-Pacific perspective. Pearson Higher Education AU. Hurn, B., Tomalin, B. (2013).Cross-cultural communication: Theory and practice. Springer. Jandt, F. E. (2017).An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community. Sage Publications. Kinloch, P., Metge, J. (2014).Talking past each other: problems of cross cultural communication. Victoria University Press. Law, R., Buhalis, D., Cobanoglu, C. (2014). Progress on information and communication technologies in hospitality and tourism.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,26(5), 727-750. Leung, K., Ang, S., Tan, M. L. (2014). Intercultural competence.Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav.,1(1), 489-519. Merkin, R., Taras, V., Steel, P. (2014). State of the art themes in cross-cultural communication research: A systematic and meta-analytic review.International Journal of Intercultural Relations,38, 1-23. Padhi, K. P. (2016). The Rising Importance of Cross Cultural Communication in Global Business Scenario. Quest Journals, Volume 4 ~ Issue 1 (2016) pp: 20-26 Prasad, R. (2015). Cross-cultural communication.Educating Young Children: Learning and Teaching in the Early Childhood Years,21(3), 21. Richter, A., Stocker, A., Mller, S., Avram, G. (2013). Knowledge management goals revisited: A cross-sectional analysis of social software adoption in corporate environments.Vine,43(2), 132-148. Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., McDaniel, E. R., Roy, C. S. (2014).Intercultural communication: A reader. Cengage Learning. Shebzukhova, T. A., Bondarenko, N. G. (2014). Language and values as basic elements of cross-cultural communication in tourism. InHumanities and Social Sciences in Europe: Achievements and Perspectives, 3rd International symposium(pp. 310-314). Stahl, G. K., Tung, R. L. (2015). Towards a more balanced treatment of culture in international business studies: The need for positive cross-cultural scholarship.Journal of International Business Studies,46(4), 391-414. Young, T. J., Schartner, A. (2014). The effects of cross-cultural communication education on international students' adjustment and adaptation.Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,35(6), 547-562. Zhu, Y., Bargiela-Chiappini, F. (2013). Balancing emic and etic: Situated learning and ethnography of communication in cross-cultural management education.Academy of Management Learning Education,12(3), 380-395.

Baseball Essay Research Paper Baseball is the free essay sample

Baseball Essay, Research Paper Baseball is the interest of America where work forces kick back, spread their legs out, and bask a beer. Sexual activity, the interests where work forces loosen up and distribute their legs out and afterwards have a beer. As you noticed, baseball and sex both are similar in their ways of pleasuring, so much so that they intertwined them. Work force use baseball as a manner to picture how far they went with adult females. Yet how far do they truly go, and what do acquiring to foremost, 2nd, 3rd base mean? I am particularly funny about a place tally. To get down my survey I researched baseball as general subject, to larn some background information in understanding the game and how it originated. Alexander J. Cartwright on September 23, 1845 created the first 20 regulations that started the game of baseball. The regulations are frequently referred to as the Knickerbocker Rules because that is the name the squad game themselves on the twenty-four hours that they ratified these regulations. We will write a custom essay sample on Baseball Essay Research Paper Baseball is the or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Baseball is a really simplified athletics where a individual needs to warm up his arm and head for the undertaking that lies in front. Like in sex a work forces needs to physical warm up the household gems and set on the equipment, a rubber. Work forces have jobs of anxiousness at times and doing us to non execute as we would wish to in bed quoted by a fellow co-worker in one of my categories. Work force can do mistakes every bit much as a 2nd basemen misplays a grounded that popped off his baseball mitt. We may try to bounce the ball and seek to throw it to first base but we merely stop up looking more the sap so we original were. Sometimes we might even be booed from where we stand and be told to go forth the field. Unlike being on defence, discourtesy could be more merriment, and if we are good at it we could acquire more pleasance at it and points. On April 22, 1876, Jim O # 8217 ; Rourke is credited with the first hit and individual, traversing the first base for the first clip in recorded history. Geting on first base could hold tonss of intending when we refer it to arouse. Work forces like to sometime believe first base as hitting a three-base hit, that they both are driveling each other with no fabrics. Some cats that are more polite and less sex loony like to believe as first base as a point where a nice buss and possibly a pretty nice clinch does the fast one. When I asked a twosome of people walking around the Steven s Campus and my hometown of Queens, I got a flooring figure that 80 % said that work forces acquiring to first base implies we are my full contact with fabrics on, that there is nil between a adult male and a adult females but their apparels. However unlike first base, a popular country of baseball most people seem to bask is homeruns. Many like to see the wood of the chiropteran doing full contact, piercing the ball with such a force to drive it over the wall. Particularly in the season of 1998 when Mark McGwire hit 70 homeruns to interrupt Roger Maris s old record of 61. The impossible was done and therefore has full contact sexual intercourse is the same. A adult male and adult females may hotfoot into action and execute without a small bow drama nevertheless sometimes one time in the bluish Moon you may acquire an inside the park homerun where person manages to maintain the ball in the park, nevertheless is able to traverse all the bases in a individual shooting. # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8211 ; Hockey is another favourite interests, Canadian interest. Canadians like to watch hockey with their Brie cheese, and axial rotations of staff of life, while sipping their Molesten beer. Sexual activity to Canadians I am certain is likely the same as their hockey, with an exclusion or two. Since there is non much to hockey but to acquire a Puck base on balls the goalkeeper, which we don t want to go on in sex, because, nine months subsequently you will hold an reply. Ice hockey requires t wo squads, each normally holding six participants, who wear ice skates, in drama at a clip. The object is to impel a cured gum elastic disc, the Puck, past a end line and into a net guarded by a goalkeeper, or goalkeeper. Well with this basic thought of hockey I think the symbolic correlativity between hockey and sex, is clearly seen when I merely have to advert the gum elastic Puck between the net and stick. Peoples like to state they scored on a miss, like hiting a end. Its like a fast breaking away merely you and the goalkeeper one on one, you maneuver the stick, the goalkeeper adjust itself acquiring ready to travel on your following displacement, and so you score the end with a speedy bow shooting to the lower terminal. Hockey can be really idealistic to show holding sex with a miss, but it is really often used because it is normally utilised when you want to state you are holding a babe, for the ground I mentioned before, with acquiring one base on balls the goalkeeper. # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; For three, its good, or I should state he took it to the hole. These quotation marks or expressions are good known to be a basketball term. James Naismith invented hoops on or about Dec. 1, 1891, at the International Young Men # 8217 ; s Christian Association Training School, Springfield, Mass. , where Naismith was an teacher in physical instruction. The first shooting of all time recorded and made from half tribunal was William R. Chase who likely was astonished at what he had done and did non recognize what he had accomplish. Many work forces feel like that after they had sex right. Most like to sit at that place in oz or merely woolgather how good they were. Well with footings in hoops we clearly can see that work forces who use footings like I slammed her or I scored off her, must intend concern with their misss. They like it difficult nucleus and really frequently. # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; Work force and cabinets are like adult females and salons ; the lone difference is work forces merely talk about sex in cabinets. Work forces have a inclination to spill the beans about what they did to adult females and sometimes ; really most of the times we like to boast. The absorbing portion about it is that we do non state it straight out how it truly went ; we tend to overstate and utilize cave work forces like footings to demo how hearty we were. Work forces have been told that we have little sized encephalons when it comes to intelligent, that we use more so 90 % of our encephalon simply for sex. Possibly this is why we fantasy about it every 5 minuets of the twenty-four hours. In cabinets we find the truth behind this facts about work forces. First good start we the many metaphors we use to typify sex. We have horizontal polka, which I am non certain means ; meaty sandwich which mention to the adult male s organ ; droping the salami pigboat, same thought as the last one ; establishing the meaty projectile, if you don t acquire this one I am certain person would hold to slap you ; examining the vale of wet, a more scientific term, many physicians like to utilize this one ; beam me up Scotty, conjecture where I got this one from ; boring for oil, building workers can be so crud ; travel to the island of I-wanna-lay-u, my brother idea of that one. Construction workers are the crudest creatures that stood on the high beams of skyscrapers with their ululation and hooting at adult females, or this is what the stereotype is. Construction workers would be classified as work forces at their worst. When I interviewed a building worker working on a skyscraper in midtown, he told me on an mean bases he says he howls at adult females and state them to come to his cot for a shingle down. He likes to state them that their rack is perfect and that there is a large adequate cleavage to suit his caput in it. Boy I felt like express joying because adult male it was amusing that it was true that building workers were simple to believe such things.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Giuseppe Garibaldi Giuseppe GaribaldiBook activityHe planned the unification of Italy. He was sentenced to death but he scaped to South America. When he was living in South America 1836-1848 he participated in the war against of argentina fighting with Uruguay. Giuseppe Garibaldi was Italy's best soldier . He paricipated in the Risorgimiento, the risorgimento was a nationalistic movement that planed the liberation. He had a very small army which he controlled from montevideo.After he was in South America he went to the United States and North Africa. The living in the two continets made him earn the name of (hero of the 2 worlds).He could return to Italy in the year 1854. Piedemonte was fighting a war against austria which Garibaldi helped him fight. He succeded against the Austrians in Milan. and also against the french forces. The Papal states declared him a hero. He served in the army of Sardinia, meanwhile he was influenced by the prophet of nationalism.English: "arribaldi Garibaldi taken in Naples , Ita...In 1860 he started a revolt, to capture Sicily and Naples. He dint like Italian liberals and he wanted to expand the territory of sardinis. A guy called Premier Cavour was the chief minister of Sardinia and of king Emanuel II. They were the only ones who supported him and the only ones who helped him, because he had no support from the government. In this time he was governing Sardinia. Premier Cavour and King Emanuel II were only going to help him if he proved that he was succesfull. He arived at marsala, sicily, proclaiming himself dictator using the name,Victor Emanuel. He came with 1000 Red shirts. Then he fought on the Volturno River. Ha also deafeted at the battle of Calatafimi, his troops deafeted the army of the king of Naples. The biggest battle of...

Modern Architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Modern Architecture - Essay Example The essay "Modern Architecture" explores the modernism impact on architecture. A better understanding of what can be understood by the term modern architecture can be found by studying how the form function follows it. A vivid example was the World Trade Center in New York. In terms of its physical structure, Berman describes the towers as "isolated" in that the center was difficult to get to and difficult to use, "it gave off hostility" compared to Chrysler and the Empire State Buildings, which everyone saw as being in the middle of life and Part of the whole system. "Their idea of security included repelling people. The molded form of the towers and their isolation grew out of the aesthetic sound, best expressed by Le Corbusier, who said that for modern planning we need to "kill the streets". For him, the street was a mess and chaos. " In contrast, Battery Park City Complex was also designed by the Port Authority in much the same way as the World Trade Center, but was much more use r-friendly because it had parks, museums, restaurants and other amenities that invited people to come in. And Stay some time. Berman notes that the city is perceived as a melting pot with different cultures, people, ideas, practices and many other concepts. He also represents "an endless series of completely sterile and empty giant spaces around the world." We can conclude that Berman assumes that this equanimity, inherent in the structures of the World Trade Center, led to the fact that in 2001 the terrorists chose them as targets.